History of Rome: Roman Empire. The murder of Caesar was followed by a decade of civil war that ended with the birth of the Roman Empire. In 4. 3 BC, Octavian joined forces with Mark Antony, Caesar's deputy, and Marcus. Aemilius Lepidus form the Second Triumvirate. Together they defeated Brutus and Cassius at the battle of Philippi in northern Greece and then started a program to attend the neglected provinces and resettle the veterans. While Antony took on the administrative reorganization of the wealthy eastern provinces, where he also began a love affair with Cleopatra, Octavian confiscated land in Italy for the resettlement of the army. Soon jealousy and ambition led to mutual suspicion among the three men. After the defeat of Antony and Cleopatra in a sea battle near Actium, in 3. BC, Octavian became the unchallenged master of Rome and the entire Mediterranean. On January 1. 3 of 2. Bc, the Senate awarded Octavian the name of Augustus establishing the imperial monarchy that would endure for five centuries. It was the end of the Roman Republic (5. BC). The emperor Augustus reigned from 2. BC to AD 1. 4 with absolute power. He re- established political and social stability and launched two centuries of prosperity called the Roman Peace (Pax Romana). During the first two centuries Ad the empire flourished and added new territories as ancient Britain, Arabia, and Dacia (present- day Romania). People from the provinces streamed to Rome and became soldiers, bureaucrats, senators, and even emperors. Rome developed into the social, economic, cultural capital of the Mediterranean world. Most emperors ruled sensibly and competently till military and economic disasters brought on the political instability of the 3rd century AD. The Empire guaranteed the fruitful cohabitation and melting of different cultures such as the Greek, the Jewish, the Babylonian, the new religion of the Christians, and cultural elements from Persia, Egypt, and other eastern civilizations. The Romans supplied their own peculiar talents for government, law, architecture, and spread the Latin language. They created the Greco- Roman synthesis, the rich combination of cultural elements that for two millennia has shaped the Western tradition. Augustus. Octavian's victory over Antony made him master of Rome, but it did not resolve the conflicts that had destroyed the Roman Republic. Roman Achievements & Inventions. The Romans also believed that all Romans should have food and shelter so they developed welfare programs for the.Roman emperor (98–117 ce) who sought to extend the boundaries of the empire to the east (notably in Dacia, Arabia, Armenia, and Mesopotamia), undertook a vast building program. Policing the Roman Empire studies how Roman officials attempted to maintain law and order, focusing especially on police duties of Roman soldiers during the empire's first three centuries. Emperors, governors, lesser officials. Rome In The 1st Century - Episode 4: Years Of Eruption (Part 1) (ANCIENT HISTORY DOCUMENTARY) Nero's death in 68 AD ended the Augustan dynasty and left Rome without a ruler. The empire descended into civil war as. In order to guarantee the peace and stability of the so called Augustan Age he had to follow a hard program that included every aspect of political, religious, economic, civil and military life. Government. Augustus's main task was to create and staff new administrative structures for the empire. He mostly worked to reinvigorate the senatorial order and to include Italians, who had helped him during the civil wars, in the new regime. To fulfil the exigency of more administrators for his large empire, he turned to the equestrian order, that is wealthy citizens who began to perform a wide range of administrative tasks, both in Rome and in the provinces. 1 Rome and China: comparative perspectives on ancient world empires Edited by Walter Scheidel (Stanford University) Oxford University Press (New York) General background 2,000 years ago, up to one-half of the human species was. Once established a basic administrative structure, Augustus managed to balance Rome's budget replacing the corrupt private tax collectors with state employees. He also established public police and fire protection for Rome and kept close control over grain distribution and the water supply. After having reorganized the administration in Rome, Augustus proceeded to unify ancient Italy culturally, politically, and economically integrating the Italians into all aspects of Roman life. His work of reorganization concerned also the eastern provinces, that he named territory of the Roman state. Augustus considered some. Egypt) his personal property and governed them through his deputies. Moral Reform and Religious Renewal. Part of Augustus's program was aimed to restore the ancient Roman morality and foster a repopulation of the city. In this sense he passed a legislation to encourage marriage and childbearing while penalizing the unmarried and childless. To support the old virtues and values, Augustus revived neglected ceremonies and restored 8. In commemoration of his victory over Antony, and of the city of Rome, he built a new temple to the war god, Mars and held splendid celebrations to mark the anniversary of the founding of Rome. Economy. Even though the emperor controlled coinage, taxation, and his own enormous estate, he allowed the economy to operate freely, with demand dictating price and profits. Above all it was the end of civil war that encouraged economic growth. Farming remained the basis of the Roman economy. Under the emperor farming increased both in Italy and in the provinces and Romans learned new techniques for different climatic conditions. Rome began to import many products from abroad, such as wheat from Egypt, wine from Gaul, and oil from Spain and Africa. Most of the landowners lived in the cities and the richest ones in Rome. Metalwork, glass, and pottery were manufactured principally by small workshops and mostly at the sites where was the material. One of the most important centre of manufactory became, under the empire, Gaul, where more and more craftsmen produced weapons, pottery, boots, clothing, and building material for the increasing necessities of the militaries. The easiest legal way to acquire a fortune quickly was trade. Trade was possible exploiting the advanced system of roads that Romans had built all throughout the empire and also by sea, even if there were risks. Merchants throughout the empire normally used Roman coins, but the monetary system primarily served for the emperors to pay their troops. During the reign of Augustus, a silver denarius weighted 5. The deficit spending of later emperors nearly halved the silver value of the coinage. Taxes felt more heavily on conquered peoples in the empire. Romans and Italians were exempted from tribute. The Army. One defeated Mark Antony, Augustus reduced the military forces and provided men mostly with the land of the new colonies around the Mediterranean. In so doing he reinforced the boundaries of the empire, favoured its expansion, and created new important centres for spreading the Roman way of life. He also established a central military treasury and set funds for the legionaries. In order to bind his troops to him he rewarded it with regular compensation, occasional bonus, and promotions. The Roman army could count on the ability of Romans for the heavy infantry but also on the skills of the auxiliary troops, composed by conquered peoples. This measure also fostered a stricter unification throughout the peoples of empire, spreading the Latin and Roman civilazion in all the colonies. While settling legions throughout the empire, Augustus disposed a special troop, know as the praetorian guard, to defend and protect Italy. Augustus left a legacy of peace and prosperity to the Romans. Internal peace revived Roman patriotism and economic prosperity throughout the empire. He expanded and reinforced the empire boundaries and reorganized the administration of the colonies. Augustus was also a generous patron of literature and art and, in his final decades, the father figure who. Roman people. Tiberius (AD 1. Caligula (AD 3. 7- 4. Tiberius and his chosen successor. He abolished the sales tax and sponsored frequent public athletic games and spectacles, but a severe illness transformed him into a vicious tyrant. After his death, by hand of one of his guards, the empire was ruled well by Claudius I (ad 4. Agrippina poisoned him to ensure the throne to her son Nero. Nero (AD 8. 54- 6. He persecuted Christians and blamed them for the blaze that in AD 6. Rome. As a result of his lavish behaviour (he preferred to give vocal concerts at Greek festivities then caring for the legions), he caused. All four Julio- Claudian emperors lived in the shadow of Augustus, and none felt secure on his throne. Insecurity brought tyranny, which then provoked conspiracies in the Senate and in the palace. Finally, even the army turned away from the dynasty that had created the empire. Civil war returned to Rome as one person after another claimed the throne and marched on the capital. The savage civil war of AD 6. Year of the Four Emperors, concluded with the triumph of Vespasian(AD 6. Italian middle class. He placated the rebellions in the eastern provinces, restored the economy, recruited the senators from among western provinces, and. Flavians. Flavian and Antonine Emperors. After the brief and extremely popular reign of Titus (AD 7. Domitian (AD 8. 1- 9. In AD 9. 6 the Senate elected the childless Nerva (AD 9. Nerva began the dynasty of the Antonines and was followed by his adopted child, Trajan. Trajan (9. 8- 1. 17), a distinguished soldier, became one of the most beloved Roman emperors thanks to his numerous conquests (Dacia, Arabia, Armenia, and Parthia), his common sense, administrative skill, and genuine human compassion. He initiated an impressive building program throughout the empire and particularly cared about the social welfare programs, such as the distribution of food to poor children. He displayed a great humanity and tolerance. Also his cousin Hadrian (1. The Hadrian Wall, his most famous building project, stretched across 1. Northern England. His successor, Antoninus Pius (1. Marcus Aurelius (1. Germanic tribes. After his fruitful campaigns and successful reign he designated as heir to the throne his son Commodus (1. His neglect towards the business of the empire in favour of his passion for the games caused him the death by strangling and eventually led to first civil war in more than a century. The five emperors from Nerva to Marcus Aurelius are designated as the. Will US repeat the welfare death of the Roman Empire? Every society is building its strength on a moral ground. In the US that moral has been written into the Constitution granting the citizens law and order, as well as, a sincere respect for all citizens' property and income. When the representatives believe that they by the power of the government apparatus unpunished can plunder certain citizen groups on their incomes and property, they are fatally mistaken. In ancient Rom social welfare support was introduced by Gajus Gracchus (1. BC), on a large scale. All citizens of Rome were entitled to buy a monthly ration of grain at a fixed price. The subsidized staple food of Rom became immediately the weapon of choice for the ruler to stay in high favor with the crowd and to maintain control over the political power. Cheap grain was initially sold without any means test to every individual willing to queue up. From the beginning about 5. The free food policy evolved gradually over a long period of time. Since the inception of the system the number of people living on public social assistance increased and few rulers in power dared to put an end to it. The first ruler to make an attempt was the great commander Lucius Cornelius Sulla (1. BC), but it was stopped by severe social riots forcing him to retreat. Then no less than 2. Roman citizens received public social assistance and did stand up in defense of their right to cheep basic food. CAESAR AND HIS PREDECESSORSAt the time Julius Caesar seizure of power (4. BC) the number of people living on social welfare assis- tance had increased to a staggering 3. Publius Clodius Pulcher abolished the charge in 5. BC, and began distributing the grain for free. The result was a sharp increase in the influx of rural poor into Rome, as well as the freeing of many slaves so that they too would qualify for the dole. Ceasar man- aged later to introduce a means test that squeezed down the social welfare population to 1. After his death followed several weak rulers, causing the number to again reach 3. Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus (from 3. BC) by a new means test managed to squeeze down to 2. The welfare system had by then become a well- established institution by its own power that withstood every attack during the coming centuries. One notable act of Marcus Ulpius Nerva Traianus, commonly known as Trajan (9. AD), was his formalization of the Alimenta, a welfare program that helped orphans and poor chil- dren. It provided general funds, as well as food and subsidized education. Under Septimius Severus (1. AD) free oil was also distributed. Subsequent emperors added, on occasion, free pork and wine. A mile- stone in evolution was made 2. Lucius Domitius Aurelianus commonly known as Aurelian (2. AD) who not only made the right to social welfare hereditary but also boosted welfare benefits considerably by providing baked bread instead of corn supplemented by pork, olive oil and salt. The Romans did not only demand cheap basic food but also subsidized culture. The emperors assumed the responsibility of providing the citizens with publicly funded entertainment and arts programs. One historian estimates the modem equiva- lent of $1. None of the emperors, not even Caesar or Au- gustus, dared to circumscribe the Roman's welfare privileges. Indeed they had access to the Praetorian Guard having power to crush any insurrection. However, they preferred to be generous and to keep the crowd in a good mood. They wanted to be greeted with enthusiasm by the crowd of people at the public celebrations and entertainments. Ova- tions and cheers was sweet music for the emperors that they where willing to pay a very high price for. INFLATIONThe development of Rom to an empire was created by an expensive military power and plentiful of stupendous palaces and monumental buildings. Combined with immense costs for free food and entertainment the emperors need for incomes be- came insatiable. The expenditures grow fare above the tax revenues, a problem the government solved by reducing the value of the money value. By other words inflation was created. In absence of a modern monetary system, where the printing press for banknotes could be used, the rulers had to deteriorate the coin. The silver coin denarius was introduces 2. BC and contained 9. Nero reduced the silver content to 9. Trajan (9. 8- 1. 17 AD) reduced the silver content to 8. De- basement continued under the reign of Marcus Aurelius (1. AD), who reduced the silver content of the denarius to 7. Septimius Severus to 5. By the middle of the third century AD, the denarius had silver content of just 5 percent and year 2. AD the con- tent was reduced to only 0,0. The decline in the silver content to the point where coins contained virtually no silver at all was countered by the monetary reform of Aure- lian in 2. It sound a lot, but the price increase was only 1. For us it looks almost like as close to a stabile money value you can get. However, the inflation ratio increased, as it use to do in a welfare state. And during the hundred years beginning 2. AD to 3. 00 AD and the price for an artaba (approx 7. At that time Rome was going fast on the downhill slope, with stark increase in prices, averaging 1. Since prices were rising too rapidly it became impossible to count on an immediate proportional increase in the fiscal revenue, because of the rigidity of the apparatus of tax collection. Of course, people having savings where hit harsh by the inflation, particularly small savers in coins. Such inflations are in reality working as a systematic plundering of the savers assets and dis- courage the desire to save. THE PLUNDERING OF THE PRODUCTIVEDuring the centuries prior to Christ's birth, when the Roman Empire evolved, the society's financial base was created on a healthy model that stimu- lated entrepreneurship and productivity. Without a free market economy with free production and trade no development would have taken place. Taxes and duties where favorable to businessmen and the agriculture blossomed. The farmers developed a capacity big enough to provide Rom with all staple food needed. Artisanship and commerce flourished and enterprises grow. Then came the redistribution of wealth, trans- forming Rom to a welfare state, with free bread and entertainment, as well as, with extensive government support for a place to live at, child support (due to the low nativity), and lots of jobs in the constantly expanding public sector. This develop- ment was not possible to slow down, as it created its own unstoppable force. Oppression and extortion began early in the provinces outside Italy and reached later fantastic proportions. The mob of Rome and the palace favorites produced nothing, yet they continually demanded more free gifts. This was gradually leading to taxation on the citizens living in Italy, and later leading to an intol- erable tax burden on the productive classes, as they earned good money and often managed to buildup considerable fortunes. Emperor Nero once declared, . Let us see to it that no one owns anything! Most emperors continued the policies of debasement and increasingly heavy taxes, levied mainly on the productive and wealthy. The war against wealth was not simply due to only fiscal reasons, but also as a conscious policy of exterminating the Senatorial class, to eliminate any rival to the emperor. As the private wealth of the Empire was gradually plundered away though confiscatory taxes, an increasing number of entrepreneurs could not manage their businesses any longer. This caused the economic growth to slow to a virtual standstill. Once the productive were no longer able to pay Rom's bills, the burden fell onto the working class. Evidently average people suffered severely from the deteriorating economic conditions. To prevent businesses from shutting- down, resulting in mass unemployment, the government was increasingly nationalizing the economy. This caused a total breakdown of the division of labor. The entrepreneur's difficulties were not only caused by high taxes but also by massive government regulations. At this point 3. 01 AD, the Emperor Diocletianus, commonly known as Diocletian, took action in order to subdue the increas- ing civil unrest. He attempted to stop the inflation with price controls on all services and commodi- ties. Despite the fact that a brutal death penalty applied to violations of the price controls, they were a total failure. Goods disappeared from sale, resulting in shortages and destitution. Every kind of price control where the pro- ducer is prevented from charging the price the con- sumer is willing to pay for is thieving from the producer. This kind of plundering and assault did severely discourage the producers desire to produce. Businesses were literally pulverized under the burden of this public hostility. THE DECAY OF THE STATEUnder Emperor Aurelian (2. AD) Rom had one million inhabitants. But here the curve is turning down. The financial assault on the businessmen and the farmers caused the supply to decline. The legal market with controlled prices and shortage was replaced by a black market with sky- high prices. Businesses and people where forced to move to the provinces, basically leaving Rome as an economic empty shell. The money economy finally completely broke down. In the end, there was no money left to pay the army, build forts or ships, or protect the frontier. It was an easy task for he barbarian German chieftain Odoacer to pushed aside the last Roman emperor, Romulus Augustulus, and installe himself 4. AD as the new authority. The end came rather anti- climactically in 4. German chieftain Odoacer pushed aside the last Roman emperor, Romulus Augustulus, and installed himself as the new authority and liberator of a corrupt and decayed ideology. America's new progressive rulers are now elevating the government's power and influence and have on a morally rotten and corrupt ideology started to plunder the productive citizen groups on their incomes.
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